2002 में जम्मू के रघुनाथ मंदिर पर हुआ था आतंकी हमला, मारे गए थे श्रद्धालु

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जम्मू। आज से करीब 12 साल पहले जम्मू कश्मीर के ऐतिहासिक रघुनाथ मंदिर पर सन् 2002 के मार्च और नवबंर में फिदायीन हमला हुआ था। इस हमले में लगभग दो दर्जन लोग मारे गए थे हाताहातों की संख्या सैकड़ों में थी। आतंकवादियों द्वारा की गई इस कायरना हरकत ने देश के सभी वर्ग के लोगों की आत्मा को हिला कर रख दिया था।

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जम्मू के रघुनाथ मंदिर पर हुए आतंकी हमले के फाइल फोटो…

जिस समय हमला किया गया, उस समय बड़ी संख्या में श्रद्धालु मंदिर के अंदर मौजूद थे। एक तरफ़ आतंकियों और सुरक्षाकर्मियों के बीच गोलीबारी चल रही थी, दूसरी तरफ़ श्रद्धालुओं को मंदिर से निकाला जा रहा था। बड़ी संख्या में महिलाएँ और बच्चे भी मंदिर के अंदर थे। इनमें से कइयों को सुरक्षाकर्मियों ने तो कुछ को आम लोगों ने सुरक्षित बाहर निकाला था। सुरक्षाकर्मियों ने तुरंत ही मंदिर परिसर को घेर लिया।

और शुरु हुई कमांडो कार्रवाई

हमले के कुछ ही देर बाद बड़ी संख्या में सुरक्षाकर्मियों ने कमांडो कार्रवाई शुरु कर दी। आतंकवादियों और सुरक्षाकर्मियों के बीच देर रात तक गोलीबारी चलती रही है। आंतकवादियों ने इस दौरान मंदिर में मौजूद श्रद्धालुओं पर जमकर फायरिंग की. अनेक लोग मारे गए। आतंकवादी ज्यादा से ज्यादा लोगों को मारने के मकसद से मंदिर में घुसे थे। 24 नवबंर 2002 से पहले जम्मू के इसी ऐतिहासिक रघुनाथ मंदिर में 30 मार्च 2002 को भी हमला किया गया था। तब आठ लोग मारे गए थे। इस घटना के बाद बाद मंदिर की सुरक्षा बढ़ा दी गई थी। इसके बाद भी आतंकी मंदिर पर फिर से हमला करने में सफल हो गए थे। मंदिर में हमला करने से पहले आतंकियों ने बाजार में तीन धमाके किए थे। हमले में दो आतंकवादियों सहित 11 लोग मारे गए थे।

आगे की स्लाइड में देखें 2002 में जम्मू के रघुनाथ मंदिर पर हुए आतंकी हमले के फाइल फोटो…

2002 में जम्मू के रघुनाथ मंदिर पर हुआ था आतंकी हमला, मारे गए थे श्रद्धालु

भारत का गुप्त इतिहास- Bharat Ka rahasyamay Itihaas

पाकिस्तान ने मीरपुर को डुबोया, 5000 लड़कियों का किया था अपहरण

Posted on December 17, 2014October 25, 2015 by Free Hindi Ebooks

पाकिस्तान ने मीरपुर को डुबोया, 5000 लड़कियों का किया था अपहरण

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Posted on December 17, 2014 by Free Hindi Ebooks

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मैडम:- अर्जुन चलो खड़े हो जाओ और दीवार पे निबन्ध सुनाओ…..

अर्जुन बड़े बेमन से खड़ा होता है और मुँह लटका के बोलता है- मेम दीवार दो प्रकार की होती है, एक अच्छी दीवार एक बुरी दीवार….

ठीक से एक्सप्लेन करो….. मेडम बोलती हैं

अर्जुन:- टीचर, मेरा एक दोस्त है इक़बाल जो बहुत अच्छा क्रिकेट खेलता है, लेकिन अब वो मेरे साथ नहीं खेलता । ताऊजी कहते हैं कि उसके और हमारे बीच एक दीवार बन गयी है…..

वो अब 5 टाइम नमाज पढता है,
मैं हफ्ते में एक भी दिन मंदिर नहीं जाता ।।
वो मूंछ निकाल के दाढ़ी रखता है,
मैं तिलक लगाने में भी शर्माता हूँ ।
वो मदरसे में कुरान पढ़ने जाता है,
मैं मंदिर में लड़किया देखने जाता हूँ ।
वो बात बात पर गुजरात, मुज्जफरनगर और गाज़ा की बातें करता है,
मुझे कश्मीर और आसाम का क ख ग भी नहीं पता।
वो अपनी बहन तो बहन, अपनी बूढी दादी को भी बुरखा पहनने के लिए मजबूर करता है,
में अपनी बहन को सलवार कमीज़ पहनने पर पुरानी सोच वाली बहनजी बोलकर चिढ़ाता हूँ।

और अब वो इक़बाल इराक में धर्मयुद्ध लड़ने गया है ।।

(इसे कहते हैं अदृश्य दीवार … जो एक बेफिक्र हिन्दू को कभी नजर नही आयेगी।

******** खरबूजा सीमेंट *****

मैडम:- अर्जुन चलो खड़े हो जाओ और दीवार पे निबन्ध सुनाओ.....

अर्जुन बड़े बेमन से खड़ा होता है और मुँह लटका के बोलता है- मेम दीवार दो प्रकार की होती है, एक अच्छी दीवार एक बुरी दीवार....

ठीक से एक्सप्लेन करो..... मेडम बोलती हैं

अर्जुन:- टीचर, मेरा एक दोस्त है इक़बाल जो बहुत अच्छा क्रिकेट खेलता है, लेकिन अब वो मेरे साथ नहीं खेलता । ताऊजी कहते हैं कि उसके और हमारे बीच एक दीवार बन गयी है.....

वो अब 5 टाइम नमाज पढता है,
मैं हफ्ते में एक भी दिन मंदिर नहीं जाता ।।
वो मूंछ निकाल के दाढ़ी रखता है,
मैं तिलक लगाने में भी शर्माता हूँ ।
वो मदरसे में कुरान पढ़ने जाता है,
मैं मंदिर में लड़किया देखने जाता हूँ ।
वो बात बात पर गुजरात, मुज्जफरनगर और गाज़ा की बातें करता है,
मुझे कश्मीर और आसाम का क ख ग भी नहीं पता।
वो अपनी बहन तो बहन, अपनी बूढी दादी को भी बुरखा पहनने के लिए मजबूर करता है,
में अपनी बहन को सलवार कमीज़ पहनने पर पुरानी सोच वाली बहनजी बोलकर चिढ़ाता हूँ।

और अब वो इक़बाल इराक में धर्मयुद्ध लड़ने गया है ।।

(इसे कहते हैं अदृश्य दीवार ... जो एक बेफिक्र हिन्दू को कभी नजर नही आयेगी।

******** खरबूजा सीमेंट *****

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भारत का गुप्त इतिहास- Bharat Ka rahasyamay Itihaas

कुछ लोग कहते हैं ”गड़े मुर्दे मत उखाड़ो”, तो ये गड़े मुर्दे अपने हिन्दू -सिख भाई तो है ही

Posted on December 17, 2014May 1, 2020 by Free Hindi Ebooks

Sachin Patil shared Aditi Gupta‘s post.

1 hr ·

Aditi Gupta added 3 new photos.

कुछ लोग कहते हैं ”गड़े मुर्दे मत उखाड़ो”, तो ये गड़े मुर्दे अपने हिन्दू -सिख भाई तो है ही, ये अपने इतिहास के काले पन्ने है । आतंकियों ने 135 पाकिस्तानी बच्चो को मार दिया तो आज पूरा भारत देश इन दुष्ट पाकिस्तानियो के साथ खड़ा है । मानवता और इंसानियत के लिहाज से ठीक भी लगता है । पर ये मानवता और इंसानियत सिर्फ हमारे लिए ही क्यों ?
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भारत का मीरपुर अब पाकिस्तान के कब्जे में है। हमारे मीरपुर को पाकिस्तान ने झेलम नदी पर मंगला बांध बनाकर डुबो दिया। भारत में कश्मीर रियासत के विलय के समय यहां पर करीब 40 हजार हिंदू थे। इसमें दस हजार के करीब हिंदू पाकिस्तान से विभाजन के समय आ गए। यहां के तीन-चार हजार मुस्लिम पाकिस्तान के पंजाब प्रांत में चले गए। पाकिस्तान की फौज ने जब मीरपुर पर आक्रमण किया तो अपनी लाज बचाने के लिए सैकड़ों हिंदू महिलाओं और लड़कियों ने कुंए में कूद कर जान दे दी। मीरपुर छोड़कर जा रहे परिवारों को घेरकर पाकिस्तानी फौज ने उनका कत्लेआम कर दिया। पाकिस्तानी फौज करीब पांच हजार युवा लड़कियों और महिलाओं का अपहरण कर पाकिस्तान ले गई। इन्हें बाद में मंडी लगाकर पाकिस्तान और खाड़ी देशों को बेच दिया ।
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कैसे भूल जाऊ वो खौफनाक मंजर कैसे दोस्ती करू इस नापकिस्तान से ?

नोट – मीरपुर को लूटने में लगे पाकिस्तानी सैनिकों ने यहां से करीब दो घंटे पहले निकल चुके काफिले का किसी ने पीछा नहीं किया। काफिला अगली पहाडिय़ों पर पहुंच गया। वहां तीन रास्ते निकलते थे, तीनों पर काफिला बंट गया। जिसको जहां रास्ता मिला भागता रहा। पहला काफिला सीधे रास्ते की तरफ चल दिया जो कि झंगड़ की तरफ जाता था। दूसरा कस गुमा की ओर चल दिया। पहला काफिला दूसरी पहाड़ी तक पहुंच चुका था परंतु उसके पीछे वाले काफिले को कबाइलियों ने घेर लिया। उन दरिंदों ने जवान लड़कियों को एक तरफ कर दिया और बाकी सबको मारना शुरू कर दिया। कबाइली और पाकिस्तानी उस पहाड़ी पर जितने आदमी थे उन सबको मारकर नीचे वाले काफिले की ओर बढ़ गये। इस घटनाक्रम में 18,000 से ज्यादा लोग मारे गए।
झेलम नदी के किनारे बसा पुराना मीरपुर।

भारत के भव्य नगर - Bharat ke Nagar

HISTORY REVISITED IN MANDU MADHYA PRADESH

Posted on December 17, 2014 by Free Hindi Ebooks

HISTORY REVISITED IN MANDU MADHYA PRADESH

Posted by: EDITOR PICKS | on October 17, 2014

Mandu, Madhya Pradesh; Historical abode of love

Tales of the famous royal romance and the natural exquisiteness cast a magical spell on one’s mind as soon as one arrives here. Beauty of Mandu is enhanced by numerous lakes and ponds and no wonder, it attracts romantics from all over the world as Shivani Pandey herself discovered.

Nestled in the enchanting forests of Madhya Pradesh is the little town of Mandu. A three-hour drive from Bhopal through beautiful hills and crop fields leads you to this legend of love and valour. A narrow road taking off from the main highway through a village, then uphill and Mandu is reached like fingers touching a green spot on the map.

Typically green and yellow fields characterize the village and you see grazing cattle, women carrying fuel wood on their heads, and drawing water from the wells. The ruins of Mandu, about 35 km from Dhar district, lie in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. In the 10th century, Mandu was founded as a fortress retreat by Raja Bhoj. Towards the end of the 11th century, it came under the rule of the Taranga Kingdom. It was conquered by the Muslim rulers of Delhi in 1304 A.D and in 1401 A.D.

When the Mughals captured Delhi, the Afghan Dilawar Khan, the then Governor of Malwa, set up his own little kingdom and thus the Ghauri dynasty was established.

It further came under the influence of Mohammad Khalji and his son Ghiyas-ud-din for some sixty years during the Khalji dynasty. Finally, the Mughals annexed this little kingdom. This is also the epoch for which Mandu became world famous, a spot as synonymous with romance as Agra for its Taj Mahal. For it was here that the famous yet tragic love tale of Baz Bahadur and Rani Roopmati was enacted.

As the car raced uphill on the long dirt track laced with small mud huts we received a warm welcome from the children of the village, who followed us, waving and smiling. After about a half hour climb on the steep hills we reached our destination. Its charm lies in its separation from the mainland. It seems to be a civilization of its own, away from the noise of the city or even the village. Foreign tourists, in plenty, can be seen riding around town on their bicycles. Small shops lie on both sides of the little road, reminding me of the Mall Roads on Indian hill stations.

There are two ends to this place and you can begin your architectural exploration either from the famous Rani Roopmati and Sultan Baz Bahadur’s pavilion or from the other side, which has the famous Jahaz (Ship) Mahal. Roopmati’s Pavilion has undergone two or three stages of construction in different periods. On the terrace of the original portion there are pavilions crowned at the top with hemispherical domes, fluted both outside and inside. It is said that Roopmati came here everyday from the palace to savor the breathtaking views of river Narmada, which can be seen from here on a clear, sunny day. The style of the arches and pillars show that the pavilions were probably built a century earlier than Roopmati’s time.

Baz-Bahadur’s Palace, which is situated close to Rani Roopmati’s pavilion, has broad steps with landings at intervals. The passage through the gateway has guardrooms on both sides with a vaulted ceiling. Further the main door leads to the outer court. This palace consists of a spacious open courtyard with halls and rooms on all the four sides and a cistern in its center. The place attracts many tourists and is a photographer’s heaven. The guide tells me that Roopmati was a simple village shepherdess living on the banks of the Narmada.

She had an extraordinary beauty and charm and also a pleasant voice and deep reverence towards river Narmada (whom she considered as goddess and she did not eat without paying obeisance to Narmada). Baz Bahadur, the King of Mandu, met Roopmati while on one of his hunting trips and also heard her sing. He was so smitten by her that he invited her to Mandu to live there as he was a connoisseur of good music. She obliged but told him about her vow of not eating before seeing the Narmada. To meet her demands, Baz Bahadur built two chattris or pavilions with a dome on the military watch post on the outskirts of the town from where river Narmada was visible in a distance, as a silver thread on its way to the sea. She could also see the Palace of Baz Bahadur from here. This arrangement was usually satisfactory except when there was thick fog or clouds and then either she would go hungry or make it on horseback for a darshan (view) of Narmada. Moved by her plight, it is said, Goddess Narmada came into her dreams and told her to get a pond excavated near the palace of Baz Bahadur where sacred water from Narmada could be found linked through an underground source. It happened as was said and this is the story of Rewa (another name of Narmada) Kund near Baz Bahadur palace. However, as in many other love stories, this one too took a tragic turn as Mughal Emperor Akbar’s General Adam Khan attacked Mandu and defeated Baz Bahadur. It is believed that one of the main reasons behind Adam Khan’s attack was his infatuation with Roopmati. Defeated, Baz Bahadur fled and on hearing the news of fall of Mandu, Roopmati committed suicide by consuming poison.Also to be visited near Mandu are Lohani Caves. These rock-cut caves were carved probably in the 11th century A.D. The caves have about 80 sculptures. Some Shiva temples also are believed to have existed near the caves. To the south of the caves stands a monolithic pillar about 5 meters high probably attached to a temple.

Dilawar Khan’s Mosque is the earliest Indo-Islamic building at Mandu. It consists of a central courtyard, enclosed by colonnade and a mehrab on the west. The prayer hall has ceiling in Hindu style and its architecture is considerably influenced by Hindu workmanship.

Then there is Hindola Mahal, which is “T”-shaped, with a main hall and a transverse projection. On both sides of the hall are six arched openings. This hall originally had a massive vaulted roof. The sidewalls are strengthened with massive sloping buttresses, which have given the name, “swinging” (Hindola) palace, to the building. Architecturally, the palace is assigned to the end of the 15th century A.D.

The tomb of Hoshang Shah is square in plan, with well-proportioned and artistic arched openings on three sides supporting the marble dome above. The mausoleum stands on a square marble platform. The walls are 9.6 m high from the platform. The dome is flat and heavy, adorned with small domed turrets at the four corners. The finial of the dome is crowned with a crescent, a feature that seems to have been imported to Mandu. The tomb is influenced by Hindu style of architecture.

There is romance, poetry and beauty around the place, which is quiet and calm. The place gives a feeling of being transported back to a time in history. Not only the monuments, but the hawkers, the lanes, a noisy bazaar on the backstreet of the palace all give a very historical feel to it. I break out of a trance when I see a white woman riding her bike with her boyfriend.

Mandu has 61 monuments out of which 12 are the main ones. Historically, because of the famous Baz Bahadur –Rani Roopmati story, Mandu is linked with love, war and tragedy. The tales of the famous royal romance and the natural exquisiteness cast a magical spell on one’s mind. The beauty of the city is further enhanced by about a dozen lakes and ponds, and is easily one of most visited places by foreign tourists in this part of India.

There is romance, poetry and beauty around the place, which is quiet and calm. The place gives a feeling of being transported back to a time in history.

Next on the list for my visit was the majestic Jami Masjid was started by Hoshang Shah and completed by Mahmud Khalji in A.D.1454. On plan it is 97.4 sq.m with a huge dome on the porch and approached by a flight of thirty steps. The facade of the plinth has been arranged into a verandah, 1.8m deep, with arched openings. The interior of the mosque consists of a spacious hall about 13.7 sq.m with jali (screens) on the sides.

Madrasa or Ashrafi Mahal: The buildings here belong to two different stages of construction. The earlier representing a college or Madrasa, attached to the Jami Masjid, is a great quadrangle enclosed on all sides by a number of small cells for students. At the four corners of the quadrangle were round towers, three of which are still extant. Amongst these the north-eastern tower was later raised to seven stories by Mahmud Khalji to commemorate his victory over the Rana of Mewar in Rajasthan. The basement of this tower is 9.8 m high. Here the tomb of Mahmud Khalji was erected on the western projection of the quadrangle. The interior of this tomb is 19.9 sq.m. It was repaired during the time of the Mughal emperor Akbar. Other interesting monuments include some extraordinary creations from 15^th and 16th century. Malik Mughith’s Mosque was built by the father of Mahmud Khalji in A.D.1432. The plan of this building consists of a central court and other usual parts. Dai-Ki-Chhoti Bahen-Ka-Mahal is a tomb octagonal in plan with arched openings on four sides.

Darya Khan’s Tomb has the most interesting small domes at the four corners surrounding the main dome in the center. The interior is a square with arches built across the corners to support the dome above. The tomb was built for Darya Khan in A.D.1510-26. Jahaz Mahal is known as “Ship Palace”, as it perches on the narrow strip of land between the waters of the Munj and Kapur tanks.

The ground floor of the building consists of three large halls, with corridors in between the narrow rooms at the extreme ends. Its spacious terrace, approached by a lengthy flight of steps is adorned with domed pavilions.

The ship palace is two-storied was constructed for the use of harem of Ghiyath-ud-din. The royal harem apparently possessed many beautiful women not only from different parts of the country but from other foreign lands too. The first storey was used to house them whereas the ground floor was the pavilion. A night’s stay in Mandu felt really like in the lap of nature. The tent room that I stayed in had an awesome view of the valley and the dense jungles. Mandu gives you a feeling of retreat and incidentally the resort was also called retreat. It is like withdrawing and retreating from the present and the chaotic to revisit the past centuries through various architectural marvels. The place infuses you with silence to gather and enjoy the beauty of the historical structures and the tales behind them. To bring back along with memories and many pictures you have the most interesting Imli (tamarind), which is the size of a papaya. This fruit is only found in Mandu in this shape and size, besides Africa. Some connections!

True love does not die. It lives long after the ones that loved are gone. It continues to give warmth to story books and hearts alike. Mandu, is one such place that lives beyond its time in history and beyond its ruins. Life was love here and love was life.

भारतीय मंदिर - Bharatiya Mandir

Nilakanta Mahal

Posted on December 17, 2014 by Free Hindi Ebooks

Symbol of religious unity

LAKSHMI VENKATRAMAN

Partly in ruins:(From left): The projecting porch with the arched corridor; a view of Malik Mughith’s mosque; and the shrine for Lord Sivaat the basement of the mosque.Photos: Lakshmi Venkatraman
Partly in ruins:(From left): The projecting porch with the arched corridor; a view of Malik Mughith’s mosque; and the shrine for Lord Sivaat the basement of the mosque.Photos: Lakshmi Venkatraman
Partly in ruins:(From left): The projecting porch with the arched corridor; a view of Malik Mughith’s mosque; and the shrine for Lord Sivaat the basement of the mosque.Photos: Lakshmi Venkatraman

Heritage Early inscriptions at Malik Mughith’s mosque show that materials from Hindu structures were used for shaping Islamic architecture, in Mandu. Lakshmi Venkatraman

Nilakanta Mahal is situated at a pleasant spot on the hills, on the outskirts of Mandu in Madhya Pradesh.

There used to be an ancient shrine dedicated to Siva here. But as recorded in an inscription seen at the site, it claims that in the 16{+t}{+h}century a governor of Mughal emperor Akbar built a pleasure house on the spot. It is built of red sandstone and has nothing much to boast of in terms of architectural elements, though whatever remains show that it had followed the typical style of the period. But today, one can once again see a shrine of Siva on the site.

From the ground level one needs to climb up a little over the hill and climb down the steps, where there is an ornate pool with an arabesque design at the end facing the shrine, which is typically Mughal in style. The Siva shrine is at the lower basement level. With some sort of sluice arrangement, water is made to continuously trickle over the Lingam. The typical Mughal style arches around and inside the semi dome reflect on the clear water of the pool, creating an attractive sight.

Early phase of Islamic structure

Contrastingly, Malik Mughith’s mosque in Mandu town has been built with elements taken from Hindu structures. As stated in an inscription, it was built by the father of Mahmud Khilji in 1452 A.D. This marks the early phase of Islamic architecture in Malwa, when materials from Hindu structures were freely used for construction.

In this mosque too the projecting porch, the arched corridor, the turrets in the corners as well as the columns inside have all been obviously taken from a few Hindu buildings and were implanted on the mosque. Some of the damaged columns have been rebuilt with similar red sandstone. The mosque itself is partly in ruins.

भारत गौरव - Mera Bharat Mahan

List of Indian inventions and discoveries

Posted on December 17, 2014December 17, 2014 by Free Hindi Ebooks

List of Indian inventions and discoveries

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2014)

This list of Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions of India, including both the ancient and medieval nations in the subcontinent historically referred to as India and the modern Indian state. It draws from the whole cultural and technological history of India, during which architecture, astronomy,cartography, metallurgy, logic, mathematics, metrology and mineralogy were among the branches of study pursued by its scholars. During recent times science and technology in the Republic of India has also focused on automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as research into space and polar technology.

For the purposes of this list, inventions are regarded as technological firsts developed in India, and as such does not include foreign technologies which India acquired through contact. It also does not include technologies or discoveries developed elsewhere and later invented separately in India, nor inventions by Indian emigres in other places. Changes in minor concepts of design or style and artistic innovations do not appear on the list.

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Inventions[edit]

This article duplicates, in whole or part, the scope of other articles. Please discuss this issue on the talk page and conform with Wikipedia’s Manual of Style by replacing the section with a link and a summary of the repeated material, or by spinning off the repeated text into an article in its own right. (June 2013)

Button: Ornamental buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.^[1] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.^[1] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: “The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old.”^[2]
Carbon pigment: The source of the carbon pigment used in India ink was India.^[3]^[4] In India, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.^[4]^[5] Ink itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BCE.^[6] Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.^[6] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Xinjiang.^[7] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient South India.^[8] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.^[9]
Calico: Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature, by the 12th-century writer Hemachandra. He has mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.^[10] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeared inEgypt.^[10] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.^[10] Within India, calico originated in Kozhikode.^[10]
Carding devices: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.^[11] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).^[11] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the fiber by the means of a vibrating string.^[11]

Map showing origin and diffusion of chess from India to Asia, Africa, andEurope, and the changes in the native names of the game in corresponding places and time.

Chaturanga: The precursor of chess originated in India during the Gupta dynasty (c. 280-550 CE).^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15] Both the Persians andArabs ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.^[14]^[16]^[17] The words for “chess” in Old Persian and Arabic are chatrangand shatranj respectively — terms derived from caturaṅga in Sanskrit,^[18]^[19] which literally means an army of four divisions or four corps.^[20]^[21] Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.^[22] This game was introduced to the Near East from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility.^[20] Buddhist pilgrims,Silk Road traders and others carried it to the Far East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.^[22] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the expanding Arabian empire.^[21]^[23] Muslims carried Shatranj to North Africa, Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess.^[22]
Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.^[24] The origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language word चित्र् (chitr), which means a spot.^[24]^[25]
Crescograph: The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose.^[26]^[27]
Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 CE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.^[28] In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.^[28] The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginning of the common era.^[29] Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33]
Dock (maritime): The earliest known docks were not South Asian, but rather those discovered in Wadi al-Jarf, an ancient Egyptian habor dating from 2500 BCE located on the Red Sea coast.^[34]^[35] A structure at Lothal (2400 BCE) is considered the earliest Indian dock by some archaeologists, apparently located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.^[36] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.^[36] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.^[36]^[37] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.^[38]This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal’s location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.^[38] However, these speculations have been called into question, as it has been suggested by other archaeologists^[39] that the supposed dockyard at Lothal was nothing more than an irrigation tank.

Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India.

Incense clock: Although popularly associated with China the incense clock is believed to have originated in India, at least in its fundamental form if not function.^[40]^[41] Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and 8th centuries CE—the period it appeared in China all seem to have Devanāgarī carvings on them instead of Chinese seal characters.^[40]^[41] Incense itself was introduced to China from India in the early centuries CE, along with the spread of Buddhism by travelling monks.^[42]^[43]^[44] Edward Schafer asserts that incense clocks were probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the Devanāgarī inscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.^[40] Silvio Bedini on the other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from India were translated into Chinese, but holds that the time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by the Chinese.^[41]
Indian clubs: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India’s native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.^[45] During the British Raj the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in for physical conditioning.^[45] From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.^[45]
Iron and mercury coherer: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose announced the development of an “iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector” in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.^[46] He also later received U.S. Patent 755,840, “Detector for electrical disturbances” (1904), for a specific electromagneticreceiver.
Kabaddi: The game of kabaddi originated in India during prehistory.^[47] Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self-defense but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500 and 400 BCE.^[47]
Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.^[48] The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.^[48] This game was played by the Mughal emperors of India; a notable example being that of Akbar, who played living Pachisi using girls from his harem.^[48]^[49] A variant of this game, called Luodo, made its way to England during the British Raj.^[48]
Muslin: The fabric was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, in what is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is nowBangladesh.^[50]^[51] In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material’s origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic).^[51]
Mysorean rockets: The first iron-cased and metal-cylinder rockets were developed by Tipu Sultan, ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore, and his father Hyder Ali, in the 1780s. He successfully used these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu’s eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.^[52]^[53]

The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.

Palampore: पालमपुर् (Hindi language) of Indian origin^[54] was imported to the western world—notable England and Colonial america—from India.^[55]^[56] In 17th-century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.^[55] Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in quilting.^[56]

Prayer flags: The Buddhist sūtras, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.^[57] These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.^[57] Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the devas against their adversaries, the asuras.^[58] The legend may have given the Indian bhikku a reason for carrying the ‘heavenly’ banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ahimsa.^[59] This knowledge was carried into Tibetby 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.^[59] The Indian monk Atisha(980-1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.^[58]
Prefabricated home and movable structure: The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th-centuryMughal India by Akbar. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.^[60]

Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwa type, depicting fivePandava, from left to right: Bhima,Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, andSahadeva (Museum Indonesia,Jakarta). Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee (2006) trace the origins of puppetry in India to the Indus Civilization.

Ruler: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan and some parts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE.^[61] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inch—less than 2millimeters.^[61] Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that ‘The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracy—to within 0.005 of an inch. They correspond closely with the “hasta” increments of 1 3/8 inches traditionally used in South India in ancient architecture. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.’^[62] Shigeo Iwata (2008) further writes ‘The minimum division of graduation found in the segment of an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was 1.79 mm (that corresponds to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-made one from Mohenjo-daro was 6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from Harapa was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).’^[63] The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified.^[63]

Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589 and 1590 CE, and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.^[64]^[65] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.^[65] These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.^[65]

Shampoo: The word shampoo in English is derived from Hindustani chāmpo (चाँपो [tʃãːpoː]),^[66] and dates to 1762.^[67] The shampoo itself originated in the eastern regions of the Mughal Empire that ruled erstwhile India, particularly in the Nawab of Bengal where it was introduced as a head massage, usually consisting of alkali, natural oils andfragrances. Shampoo was first introduced in Britain by a Bengali entrepreneur from Bihar named Sake Dean Mahomed, he first familiarized the shampoo in Basil Cochrane’s vapour baths while working there in the early 19th century. Later, Sake Dean Mahomed together with his Irish wife, opened “Mahomed’s Steam and Vapour Sea Water Medicated Baths” in Brighton, England. His baths were like Turkish baths where clients received a treatment of champi (shampooing). Very soon due to Sake Dean Mahomed fame as a bathing expert he was appointed ‘Shampooing Surgeon’ to both George IV and William IV.^[68]
Single roller cotton gin: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century.^[69] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.^[70] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the “wooden-worm-worked roller”. This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.^[11]
Snakes and ladders: Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.^[71] During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.^[71]
Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilization’s archaeological site at Mohenjodaro in Pakistan.^[72] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.^[72] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.^[72] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.^[72] Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200 to 400 CE.^[73] Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.^[73]
Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd-century BCE India.^[74] It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.^[74] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.^[74]

Suits game: Kridapatram is an early suits game, made of painted rags, invented in Ancient India. The term kridapatram literally means “painted rags for playing.”^[75]^[76]^[77]^[78]^[79] Paper playing cards first appeared in East Asia during the 9th century.^[75]^[80] The medieval Indian game of ganjifa, or playing cards, is first recorded in the 16th century.^[81]
Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE^[82] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.^[83]^[84] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.^[84] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.^[84] A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.^[85] Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.^[86]^[87]^[88] Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as “the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world”.^[88] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.^[83]However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.^[84]^[87]
Wootz steel: Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.^[29] Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era they also made trains what were pulled by horses under ground.^[30]^[31]

Discoveries[edit]

Agriculture[edit]

Jute plants Corchorus olitorius andCorchorus capsularis cultivated first in India.

Cashmere wool: The fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.^[89] The woolen shawls made from wool in Kashmir region of India find written mention between 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.^[90] However, the founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th-century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who employed weavers from Central Asia.^[90]
Cotton cultivation: Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization by the 5th millennium BCE – 4th millennium BCE.^[91] The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialization of India.^[92] Well before the Common Era, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to theMediterranean and beyond.^[93]
Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major center for its production and processing.^[94] The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.^[94] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeksand the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.^[94]
Jute cultivation: Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.^[95] Raw jute was exported to the western world, where it was used to make ropes and cordage.^[95] The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernized during the British Raj in India.^[95] The region of Bengalwas the major center for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernization of India’s jute industry in 1855, when Kolkata became a center for jute processing in India.^[95]
Sugar refinement: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.^[96] Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.^[96] The process of producing crystallized sugar from sugarcane was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas,^[97] and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.^[98] The process was soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.^[98] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.^[99] Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.^[99]

Mathematics[edit]

Number System	Numbers
Number System	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
Gurmukhi	o	੧	੨	੩	੪	੫	੬	੭	੮	੯
Oriya	୦	୧	୨	୩	୪	୫	୬	୭	୮	୯
Bengali	০	১	২	৩	৪	৫	৬	৭	৮	৯
Devanagari	०	१	२	३	४	५	६	७	८	९
Gujarati	૦	૧	૨	૩	૪	૫	૬	૭	૮	૯
Tibetan	༠	༡	༢	༣	༤	༥	༦	༧	༨	༩
Brahmi
Telugu	౦	౧	౨	౩	౪	౫	౬	౭	౮	౯
Kannada	೦	೧	೨	೩	೪	೫	೬	೭	೮	೯
Malayalam	൦	൧	൨	൩	൪	൫	൬	൭	൮	൯
Tamil	೦	௧	௨	௩	௪	௫	௬	௭	௮	௯
Burmese	၀	၁	၂	၃	၄	၅	၆	၇	၈	၉
Khmer	០	១	២	៣	៤	៥	៦	៧	៨	៩
Thai	๐	๑	๒	๓	๔	๕	๖	๗	๘	๙
Lao	໐	໑	໒	໓	໔	໕	໖	໗	໘	໙
Balinese	᭐	᭑	᭒	᭓	᭔	᭕	᭖	᭗	᭘	᭙
Javanese	꧐	꧑	꧒	꧓	꧔	꧕	꧖	꧗	꧘	꧙

The half-chord version of the sine function was developed by the Indian mathematician Aryabhatta.

Brahmagupta’s theorem (598–668) states that AF = FD.

AKS primality test: The AKS primality test is a deterministic primality-proving algorithm created and published by three Indian Institute of Technology Kanpurcomputer scientists, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on 6 August 2002 in a paper titled PRIMES is in P.^[100]^[101] Commenting on the impact of this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: “One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked”.^[101]^[102]
Finite Difference Interpolation: The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta presented what is possibly the first instance^[103]^[104] of finite difference interpolation around 665 CE.^[105]
Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.^[106] He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.^[106] Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.^[106]
Basu’s theorem: The Basu’s theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.^[107]^[108]
Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula, Brahmagupta matrix, and Brahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598–668 CE).^[109]^[110]^[111]^[112]
Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhāskara II, (c. 1114–1185 CE)^[113]^[114]^[115] although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950~1000 CE).^[116]Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta’s approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.^[117] Jayadeva’s method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his Bijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, chakra (derived from cakraṃ चक्रं) meaning ‘wheel’ in Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.^[117]^[118] With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.^[113]^[117]^[119]
Hindu number system: With decimal place-value and a symbol for zero, this system was the ancestor of the widely used Arabic numeral system. It was developed in the Indian subcontinent between the 1st and 6th centuries CE.^[120]^[121]
Fibonacci numbers: This sequence was first described by Virahanka (c. 700 AD), Gopāla (c. 1135), and Hemachandra (c. 1150),^[122]as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody by Pingala (c. 200 BC).
Zero, symbol: Indians were the first to use the zero as a symbol and in arithmetic operations, although Babylonians used zero to signify the ‘absent’.^[123] In those earlier times a blank space was used to denote zero, later when it created confusion a dot was used to denote zero(could be found in Bakhshali manuscript).^[124] In 500 AD circa Aryabhata again gave a new symbol for zero (0).
Law of signs in multiplication: The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as subtrahend, is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BC.^[125] Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the “law of signs” with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.^[125] Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,^[125] and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.^[126] Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,^[127] and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.^[126]
Madhava series: The infinite series for π and for the trigonometric sine, cosine, and arctangent is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340–1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.^[128]^[129] He made use of the series expansion of $\arctan x$ to obtain an infinite series expression for π.^[128] Their rational approximation of the error for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for π.^[130] They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,^[130] $104348/33215$ for π correct up to eleven decimal places, i.e. $3.14159265359$ .^[131]^[132]Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosin, and arttangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.^[133]^[134]^[135]
Pascal’s triangle: Described in the 6th century CE by Varahamihira^[136] and in the 10th century by Halayudha,^[137] commenting on an obscure reference by Pingala (the author of an earlier work on prosody) to the “Meru-prastaara”, or the “Staircase of Mount Meru”, in relation to binomial coefficients. (It was also independently discovered in the 10th or 11th century in Persia and China.)
Pell’s equation, integral solution for: About a thousand years before Pell’s time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598–668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to vargaprakṛiti (Pell’s equation):^[138]^[139] $\ x^2-Ny^2=1,$ where N is a nonsquare integer, in hisBrâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta treatise.^[139]
Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujan graph and Ramanujan’s sum: Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century.^[140]
Shrikhande graph: Graph invented by the Indian mathematician S.S. Shrikhande in 1959.
Sign convention: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.^[106] By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.^[106] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.^[106] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.^[106] A dot symbol for negative numbers was also employed.^[106] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern ‘+’ sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when written just after the number affected.^[106]The ‘=’ sign for equality did not exist.^[106] Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.^[141]
Trigonometric functions (adapted from Greek): * Trigonometric functions (adapted from Greek): The trigonometric functions sine and versine originated in Indian astronomy, adapted from the full-chord Greek versions (to the modern half-chord versions). They were described in detail by Aryabhata in the late 5th century, but were likely developed earlier in the Siddhantas, astronomical treatises of the 3rd or 4th century.^[142]^[143] Later, the 6th-century astronomer Varahamihira discovered a few basic trigonometric formulas and identities, such as sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1.^[136]

Medicine[edit]

Cataract in the Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Indian surgeon Susrutaperformed cataract surgery by the 6th century BCE.

Amastigotes in a chorionic villus.Upendranath Brahmachari (19 December 1873–February 6, 1946) discovered Urea Stibamine, a treatment which helped nearly eradicate Visceral leishmaniasis.

Ayurvedic and Siddha medicine: Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient and traditional systems of medicine. Ayurveda dates back to Iron Age India^[144] (1st millennium BC) and still practiced today as a form of complementary and alternative medicine. It means “knowledge for longevity”.^[144] Siddha medicine is mostly prevalent in South India. Herbs and minerals are basic raw materials of the Siddha system which dates back to the period of siddha saints around 5th century BC.^[145]^[146]
Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the Indian physician Sushruta (6th century BCE).^[147] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.^[147] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.^[147] Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only be performed when absolutely necessary.^[147] Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these surgeries were performed by physicians.^[147] The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.^[148]
Cure for Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).^[149] However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Atharva-veda (1500–1200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.^[150]
Plastic surgery: Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.^[151] The system of punishment by deforming a miscreant’s body may have led to an increase in demand for this practice.^[151] The surgeon Sushruta contributed mainly to the field of plastic and cataract surgery.^[152] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charak were translated into Arabic language during theAbbasid Caliphate (750 CE).^[153] These translated Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermediaries.^[153] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.^[153]
Lithiasis treatment: The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in the Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).^[154] The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.^[154]
Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner Upendra Nath Brahmachari (19 December 1873 – 6 February 1946) was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for his discovery of ‘ureastibamine (antimonial compound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.’^[155] Brahmachari’s cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.^[156] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.^[156]

Mining[edit]

Diamond mining and diamond tools: Diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India,^[157]^[158]^[159] where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.^[160] India remained the world’s only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in the 18th century.^[161]^[162]^[163] Golconda served as an important centre for diamonds in central India.^[164] Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.^[164] Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.^[165] TheArthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.^[163] Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don’t mention the details of diamond cutting.^[157] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.^[157] A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: “Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences”.^[157] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially used diamonds as a “jade cutting knife” instead of as a jewel.^[157]
Zinc mining and medicinal zinc: Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India.^[166] Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during early Christian era.^[167]^[168] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300 BCE).^[169] The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th – 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.^[169]^[170]

Sciences[edit]

Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesized NH₄NO₂ in its pure form.

A Ramachandran plot generated from the protein PCNA, a human DNA clamp protein that is composed of bothbeta sheets and alpha helices (PDB ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate N- and C-terminal residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that includeGlycine, while the blue areas are for formations that don’t include Glycine.

Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form: Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesized NH₄NO₂ in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so.^[171] Prior to Ray’s synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process.^[171]
Ashtekar variables: In theoretical physics, Ashtekar (new) variables, named after Abhay Ashtekar who invented them, represent an unusual way to rewrite the metric on the three-dimensional spatial slices in terms of a SU(2) gauge field and its complementary variable. Ashtekar variables are the key building block of loop quantum gravity.
Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called ‘Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance’ was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.^[172] The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a Royal Society exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.^[172]
Bhabha scattering: In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha published a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.^[173] Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honor of his contributions in the field.^[173]
Bose–Einstein statistics, condensate and Boson: On 4 June 1924 the Bengali professor of Physics Satyendra Nath Bose mailed a short manuscript to Albert Einstein entitled Planck’s Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis seeking Einstein’s influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal Philosophical Magazine.^[174] The paper introduced what is today called Bose statistics, which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made ofphotons.^[174]^[175] Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose’s behalf to the prestigious Zeitschrift für Physik.^[174]^[175] Einstein later applied Bose’s principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted theBose-Einstein condensate.^[175]^[176]
Braunstein-Ghosh-Severini Entropy: This modelling of entropy using network theory is used in the analysis of quantum gravity and is named after Sibasish Ghosh and his team-mates, Samuel L. Braunstein and Simone Severini.
Chandrasekhar limit and Chandrasekhar number: Discovered by and named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for his work on stellar structure and stellar evolution.^[177]
Galena, applied use in electronics of: Bengali scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.^[178] The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals consisting of shortwave, white light and ultraviolet light.^[178] In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called Point Contact Diode using Galena.^[179]
Mahalanobis distance: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (29 June 1893–June 28, 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.^[180]
Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem: Also known as the Karhunen–Loève theorem. The Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear combination of orthogonal functions, analogous to a Fourier series representation of a function on a bounded interval. Stochastic processes given by infinite series of this form were first^[181] considered by Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi.^[182]
Mercurous Nitrite: The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.^[171] The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.^[171]
Ramachandran plot, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, who published his results in the Journal of Molecular Biology in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool forcommunication, representation, and various kinds of data analysis.^[183]
Raman effect: The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: “change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect.”^[184]
Raychaudhuri equation: Discovered by the Bengali physicist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems ofgeneral relativity.^[185]
Saha ionization equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualizes ionizations in context of stellar atmospheres.^[186]

Innovations[edit]

Iron working: Iron works were developed in the Vedic period of India, around the same time as, but independently of, Anatolia and the Caucasus. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE—1200 BCE.^[187]Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of radiocarbon dating. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans,axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.^[188] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology’s inception may be placed earlier.^[187] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.^[189] In the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.^[190]

दुनिया के इतहास में ऐसा युद्ध ना कभी किसी ने पढ़ा होगा ना ही सोचा होगा, जिसमे 10 लाख की फ़ौज का सामना महज 42 लोगों के साथ हुआ था

Posted on December 17, 2014December 17, 2014 by Free Hindi Ebooks

राहुल गर्ग

दुनिया के इतहास में ऐसा युद्ध ना कभी
किसी ने पढ़ा होगा ना ही सोचा होगा,
जिसमे 10 लाख की फ़ौज का सामना
महज 42 लोगों के साथ हुआ था और
जीत किसकी होती है उन 42 सूरमो की l

यह युद्ध ‘चमकौर युद्ध’
(Battle of Chamkaur) के नाम से
भी जाना जाता है जो की मुग़ल योद्धा
वज़ीर खान की अगवाई में 10 लाख की
फ़ौज का सामना सिर्फ 42 सिखों के
सामने हुआ जो की गुरु गोबिंद सिंह जी
की अगवाई में त्यार हुए थे l

नतीजा यह निकलता है की उन 42
शूरवीर की जीत होती है जो की मुग़ल
हुकूमत की नीव जो की बाबर ने रखी थी l
उसे जड़ से उखाड़ दिया और भारत को
आज़ाद भारत का दर्ज़ा दिया l
औरंगज़ेब ने भी उस वक़्त गुरु गोबिंद सिंह
जी के आगे घुटने टेके और मुग़ल राज
का अंत हुआ हिन्दुस्तान से l
तभी औरंगेब ने एक प्रश्न किया
गुरु गोबिंद सिंह जी के सामने,
की यह कैसी फ़ौज तयार की आपने
जिसने 10 लाख की फ़ौज को उखाड़ फेका !
गुरु गोबिंद सिंह जी ने जवाब दिया..
चिड़ियों से मैं बाज लडाऊ ..
गीदड़ों को मैं शेर बनाऊ ..
सवा लाख से एक लडाऊ तभी
गोबिंद सिंह नाम कहउँ !

गुरु गोबिंद सिंह जी ने जो कहा वो किया,
जिन्हे आज हर कोई शीश झुकता है l
यह है हमारे भारत की अनमोल विरासत
जिसे हमने कभी पढ़ा ही नहीं l

श्रीमद्‍भगवद्‍गीता

गीता सनातनदर्शन का सर्वाधिक स्पष्ट व व्यापक सारांश है ।

Posted on December 17, 2014 by Free Hindi Ebooks

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राकेश कुमार added 2 new photos.

जयश्रीकृष्ण !!!
गीता सनातनदर्शन का सर्वाधिक स्पष्ट व व्यापक सारांश है ।
जो न केवल भारत , बल्किसारी मानवता का आधार है !
गीता कहती है , कि मानने से न होगा , सत्य को जानना होगा !
सत्य , के लिए अपने दोषों का परिष्कार करना हीहोगा ।
साधना की आग में स्वयं को तपाना होगा !
तब सत्य का दर्शन होगा !!
वंदे भारतमातरम् !!!

Day: December 17, 2014